Pitch is determined by a sound’s frequency. Notes that sit in different positions on a musical scale, called tones, have different pitches. Modern Western music, for example, combines 12 tones, with the A at the middle of a piano keyboard having a frequency of 440 hertz. Other cultures work with fewer tones. The first few notes of “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star” vary only in pitch. Click here to hear a middle A and here for the 12 tones used in Western music. Rhythm emerges because different notes can last for varying amounts of time. Notes with different durations are r... (p. 21)

When people use music to share stories, comfort peers or worship gods, it takes on new meaning. Music’s roles vary depending on time and place.  Bonding: Battle hymns, national anthems and alma maters unite people for a common cause and make them feel that they are a part of something larger. Marching bands (shown), for example, can rile up crowds and promote pride at sporting events. Click here to listen to "The Star Spangled Banner." Relaxation : Mothers in almost all societies sing lullabies to put little ones to sleep. Called a huluna in the Phili... (p. 22)

To explore the effect that music has on the mind, Science News asked researchers to share a song they enjoy and the emotion it evokes.  Ethan Ross, physician Song: “Dark Star” by the Grateful Dead Emotion: “Elation, euphoria and wonder.” Virginia Naples, vertebrate paleontologist Song: “The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald” by Gordon Lightfoot Emotion: “Sadness and nostalgia for knowing about past events.” Alan Boss, planetary scientist Song: Beethoven’s Ninth Emotion: “... the joy of being alive, at least for a while, and in sp... (p. 25)

Music lights up almost every area of the brain, which shouldn’t be a surprise since it makes people tap their feet, encourages the recollection of vivid memories and has the potential to lighten the mood. Around the outside 1. Prefrontal cortex: This brain region plays a role in the creation, satisfaction and violation of expectations. It may react, for instance, when a beat goes missing. Recent work has shown that during improvisation a part of the prefrontal cortex involved in monitoring performance shuts down, while parts involved in self-initiated thoughts r... (p. 27)

No one knows for sure whether music played a key role in human evolution or came about as a kind of ear candy. But there are several scientifically inspired proposals for the origins of music, some included below. Da ya think I’m sexy?  Charles Darwin, an avid music fan, suggested in 1871 that humans’ tunes evolved from courtship songs like those of birds, apes and other animals. In 2000, psychologist Geoffrey Miller of the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque elaborated on Darwin’s idea, arguing that music-making abilities evolved along with intelligence and crea... (p. 28)

Though early hominids may have made sweet sounds by banging sticks and stones together, the oldest distinguishable instrument dates to 40,000 years ago.  A flute made from vulture bone (shown) and others made from mammoth ivory have been found in Hohle Fels cave near Ulm, Germany, and date from 35,000 to 40,000 years ago. Holes in other bones dating to about 43,000 years ago were dismissed as bite marks from cave bears. Gudi, literally “bone flutes,” found in Jiahu in Henan Province, China, date to 9,000 years ago. Made from the wing bones of red-cro...

From poets to politicians, people have long described music as medicine for the heart and soul. Now scientists are taking a literal look at such musings, investigating music as a means to alleviate pain and enhance recovery. Though some studies are still in the early stages, your favorite soundtrack may one day accompany a prescription. Alzheimer’s disease: Studies have shown that individuals with Alzheimer’s have a better memory for lyrics when they are sung rather than spoken. The findings suggest that song may help these patients learn practical, everyday information. Pain a... (p. 32)

Read features from the special edition Articles in A mind for music. | Go Download a PDF of the special edition Exclusive for Science News subscribers. Download | SubscribeThere are very few activities for which your birthday suit and a three-piece suit are equally appropriate attire. Music is one of them. Belting an improvised ditty alone in the shower and performing Handel’s “Messiah” on stage with a full choral ensemble and orchestra both qualify as “song.” Simple or intricate, practiced or spontaneous, individual or collective, highbrow or honky-tonk—music... (p. 17)